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Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Religious literature flourished during the period. The Tamil epic, Kamban's Ramavatharam , was written in the 13th century. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poet Auvaiyar who found great happiness in writing for young children. The secular literature was mostly court poetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period and the classical literature of the Sangam period were collected and systematised into several anthologies.

Sanskrit was patronised by the priestly groups for religious rituals and other ceremonial purposes.

Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary of Rajaraja Chola I , collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called Tirumurais. Jayamkondar's Kalingattupparani , a semi-historical account on the two invasions of Kalinga by Kulothunga Chola I was an early example of a biographical work. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century.

Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundina who ruled over the Deccan.

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They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River. Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Many sources describe Bodhidharma , the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty. During the 6th and the 7th centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based in Vatapi.

Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the Chalukya country and captured the Chalukyan capital Vatapi and ruled it for 12 years. The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for another years until the demise of the Chalukyas around He led an expedition to the Ganga kingdom south Mysore in Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri.

The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts—against the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas. Pandya Kadungon — is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman c. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power. Pandya was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire ; during the 13th century, Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence.

The Pandyan Empire was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power.

The Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power of the Pandyas and went into an alliance with the feudal chieftains of Kongu and Chera countries. The armies met in several battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories in them. Pandyas under Srimara Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern provinces in The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories.

The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the Rashtrakutas who had replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan.

The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the river Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered further defeats in the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil c. From then the Pandyas had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas. Around , out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya , made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur from Mutharaiyar dynasty and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas.

Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. However towards the end of his reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom. The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north.

However, the Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in Cholas rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son Rajendra Chola I. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom. At its peak the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north.

The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.

The empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officials were selected through a system of popular elections. Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilient Sinhalas trying to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka , Pandya princes trying to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan.

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The history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed.

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Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located on the south banks of the river Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Virarajendra Chola 's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra.

The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola , however the eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas.

The Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I even captured Rajendra and held him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra's reign , the Pandyan Empire was at the height of prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola kingdom. Together with the Chola and the Pandyas, it formed the three principal warring Iron Age kingdoms of southern India in the early centuries of the Common Era.

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In other words, they governed the area between Alappuzha in the south to Kasargod in the north. This included Palghat, Coimbatore, Salem and Kollimalai. The capital was Vanchi, which the Romans who actively traded with the Cheras knew as Muzris. By the early centuries of the Common Era, civil society and statehood under the Cheras were developed in present-day western Tamil Nadu.

The location of the Chera capital is generally assumed to be at modern Karur identified with the Korura of Ptolemy. The Chera kingdom later extended to the plains of Kerala, the Palghat gap, along the river Perar and occupied land between the river Perar and river Periyar, creating two harbour towns, Tondi Tyndis and Muciri Muziris , where the Roman trade settlements flourished.

The Cheras were in continuous conflict with the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas.

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The Cheras are said to have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally states. After the 2nd century AD, the Cheras' power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with the Romans. The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line of Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries AD.

Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram. Its geographical advantages, like the abundance of exotic spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the Ghat mountains with the Arabian sea, and the discovery of favourable Monsoon winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Chera kingdom, combined to produce a veritable boom in the Chera foreign trade.

The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram Kodungallur. Though never regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in the 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions.

Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, ruler of Venadu from to , is known for his ambitious military campaigns to former Pandya and Chola territories.

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